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Self-optimisation (also termed personal development or self-improvement) is an ongoing process by which a person improves their physical, psychological, cognitive or social skills and characteristics. This includes their performance (particularly at work), health, fitness, self-discipline, and an attractive/youthful appearance; it also extends to abilities such as self-reflection and empathy. Self-improvement is considered a key facet of today’s individualized society. This is also recognized by experts, as the aspirations towards it – promoted in particular by social media – have gained unprecedented significance and public attention. The booming wellness economy also reflects the phenomenon [1].
Enhancement is a particular form of self-improvement, and refers to methods involving technology [2]. Neuroenhancement, or "brain doping", refers to attempts by healthy individuals to increase their cognitive performance. A broader definition encompasses all means to this end, including pharmacological, neurotechnological and surgical measures. Neuroenhancement in this sense also includes applications of modern neurology, such as neural implants, brain-computer interfaces and transcranial magnetic stimulation [3]. However, the term is most commonly used to refer to the intake of psychoactive substances. The aim is to improve attention, concentration and memory and to cope better with stressful situations at work [4]. These substances are usually taken only as needed under a heavy workload, and not only to improve performance, but also out of fear of otherwise being unable to cope with the tasks at hand [5].
Three groups of psychoactive substances are most commonly used as neuroenhancers: 1) non-prescription substances, such as coffee, caffeine tablets and caffeinated energy drinks, and ginkgo biloba; 2) prescription medications, such as methylphenidate (Ritalin) or antidepressants, and 3) illegal substances such as cocaine, ecstasy or methamphetamine [4]. It should be noted that prescription substances have other indications and are not intended or approved for use as neuroenhancers.
Psychedelic microdosing refers to the regular intake of psychedelics, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or hallucinogenic mushrooms in extremely low doses. Users seek to increase their creativity and mental performance, reduce stress and suppress negative feelings, but without the hallucinations typical of LSD [6].
According to a survey conducted in 2023, 70% of Germans use performance-enhancing substances. 64.2% stated that they had consumed caffeinated beverages such as coffee or energy drinks in the last twelve months. This was followed by dietary supplements and household remedies (31.4%). 3.7% stated that they take prescription medications without actually having a medical need for them. Around 40% of those surveyed stated that they could imagine taking performance-enhancing medications. Cannabis had been used by 4.1% of those surveyed to improve performance by reducing stress, or to stimulate creativity. The use of other illegal substances in the preceding twelve-month period, such as cocaine or amphetamines, was relatively rare, at just 1.4% [7].
Men are more likely than women to use caffeine pills and illegal drugs such as cocaine. Illegal drugs were also more prevalent in urban areas than in rural areas, and among younger people up to the age of 34. Prescription medications are taken mainly by people aged under 34 and over 44. In the case of the older age group, it can be assumed that they wish to compensate for declining cognitive performance [8]. Performance pressure could be a factor among young adults. Among students, 23% admit to using medication to improve their learning performance during stressful examination periods [9].
With regard to effects, side effects and long-term effects, the available studies on the use of neuroenhancers by healthy individuals are generally inconclusive [4]; studies show, however, that stimulants usually fall short of subjective expectations [9]. Conversely, data from animal experiments published in 2024 indicates that it may be possible to improve cognitive functions by the use of cannabinoid medications [10].
Biohacking is becoming an increasingly popular form of self-improvement. Adherents of biohacking use devices, including wearables and even chip implants [11], to monitor their body and sleep data continually. By doing so, they aim to develop an optimum understanding of their own bodies and improve particular aspects of them, enhance their physical and mental energy, and achieve a sustained improvement in their performance, health and attitude towards life. Another goal is to counteract the ageing process [12].
Self-enhancement is a controversial topic. Both internal motivation and external pressure can be assumed in most cases to be factors. In extreme cases, workers may conceivably even be pressured to optimize their performance, either directly by their employers or indirectly through the deliberate stimulation of competition [2].